The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play Essay Example

The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play Essay YourLastName 1 YourFirstName YourLastName Instructors Name Course Title 3 May 2013 Edmund Vs. Iago: A Comparitive Analysis Of Shakespeares Villains VILLAINY OF EDMUND AND LAGO IN SHAKESPEAREAN PLAYS INTRODUCTION The plots of all Shakespearean tragedies follow a similar sequence of events. Typically Conflicts arise due to twist of events that set the two characters that had initially enjoyed a good relationship with each other on opposing ends. First it begins with the Exposition stage; this is where the reader is introduced to the setting under which the conflict arises, the characters involved and the state of issues at the time. The next stage is the build-up of events that will later culminate into the conflict. Here the conflict develops and grows. The final stage entails the climax of all events that emerge to turn the already matured conflict into a catastrophe (Bradley 41-43). For instance it is in the climax of the King Lears play that the spiteful son of Gloucester, Edgar kills his illegitimate brother in cold blood. Everything is left in chaos as the king dies and the remnants of the lost war, Albany, Edgar and Kent are left to deal with the pain and loss of their loved one. COMPARISION BETWEEN EDMUND IN KING LEAR V. We will write a custom essay sample on The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer LAGO IN OTHELLO Taking on their differences, Shakespeare paints the two characters as utterly villain not only in their actions but in their words too. Imagery and metaphors used in the plays are clear evidence of the depth of feeling and emotions involved. YourLastName 2 Edmund is the bustard son of Gloucester. The latter goes ahead to openly to declare the same in his statements when introducing his son to a friend Though this knave came something saucily into the world before he was called for, yet was his mother fair; there was good sport at his making, and the whoreson must be acknowledged (1 . . 21-24). Shakespeare hints that the mother of Edmund must have been a whore and her beautiful features might have been transferred to her bustard son. Clearly Gloucester did not like the young man at all. The playwright asserts that Edmund wasnt such a likeable character because even his own father insulted him! His hatred for the his bigger brother was based on the fact that the elder brother would inherited everything their father and he would get nothing second born son in the family. That made him Justify his villainy actions as he quotes The curiosity of nations to deprive me, For that I am some twelve or fourteen moon-shines . Lag of a brother? Why bastard? wherefore base? (1 . ii. 03-05). On the other hand, Iago is a trusted soldier under Othello. The two have a mutual to Michael Cassio by Othello. He utters out his hatred to Roderigo against the two although not much to Cassio as Othello in his sentiments one Michael Cassio, a Florentine (A fellow almost damnd in a fair wife), That never set a squadron in the field But he, sir, had th election (1. . 20-22). Themes relating Edmund and Lago 1 . Motives Lagos quest for revenge and treachery is instigated by the fact that although he was ost preferred as the new lieutenant, Cassio is given the position instead. This at first is the main reason why he plans to see Othello suffer. He is so spiteful as he refers to Othello as a Barbary horse, and old black ram, Initially as his plans fail to materialise and some ar e thwarted, his grip momentarily loosens only to revert and tighten even more. His motives YourLastName 3 vary as the plot unveils. At an instance his vengeful desire against Othello is fuelled by the award of a promotion to another yet at another instant he claims to suspect an affair between the latter and his wife Emilia. This is evident in his statement I hate the Moor; and it is thought abroad that twixt my sheets (1 . iii. 387). It is clearly indicated that Iago hates Othello because the latter is more honourable and has acquired a young and beautiful young lady, Desdemona to wife. We do not know the reason behind his utterance as he declares It cannot be that Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor. She must change for youth. When she is sated with his body, she will find the error of her choice. Shakespeare leaves our minds to wonder and speculate about the same. The motive behind the shameful acts of Edmund is created by the constant abuse by his father and the fact that he is an illegitimate son. His only Joy is to see all that hurt him, his abusive father and step brother experience pain and suffering. He sets their father against Edgar his elder son by deceiving him that the latter is planning to kill the older man. In retaliation, Gloucester sets to kill his son thus Edgar has to flee form home and disguises himself as a beggar in Act 2 Scene 1 . Shakespeare leaves room for imagination as pertaining to the reasoning behind Edmund claim miet Edmund was beloved as he overlooks the deceased bodies of Goneril and Regan (5. iii. 15). 2. ART OF VILLAINY The play Othello begins with a mutual relationship between Othello and Lago. As the plot unveils, the character of Iago is unveiled as a deceitful person with hidden motives. He has indeed perfected the art of devilish such that even when his plans are derailed, he is careful enough to twist his schemes to fit the planned end. He plans to ruin the marriage between Othello and his wife Desdemona. In a bid to stop the consummation ceremony from taking place, Lago goes ahead to instigate Cassio o pick a fght with Roderigo and when Governor Montano intervene, he gets stabbed in the process. It is Lago who sends Roderigo to raise alarm concerning the chaos thus disrupting the already started ceremony. He gets so close to Othello without him suspecting of his motive and actually enjoys seeing him suffer. He taunts him and derives Joy seeing him get tormented by Jealousy by inciting Othello to think that his wife is cheating on him. He actually make the latter believe that his Wife Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio. Lago is so excited to receive Othellos handkerchief that his wife Emilia had collected from the formers ouse. Although Emilia doesnt the point of ecstasy, Lago is overjoyed by the new twist of events, he immediately hatches a plan meant to drain Othellos happiness and inflict suffering. He goes ahead to plant evidence in Cassios room in order to implicate him in his claim of Desdemonas infidelity (Amanda). Shakespeare paints Edmund as a vile person and on many occasions in the play refers to him as bastardy and a bustard. Furthermore Shakespeare creates a Jerk out of him to fit the description of his character as depicted by his own father. He is a scamp and amazes he audience that such a person would still have the heart to feel remorseful upon the death of his enemies. After the demise of Goneril and Regan, he sorrowfully says Some good I mean to do, despite of my own nature, (3. v. 12). As Shakespeare paints it, we wonder if there is a little bit of humanity left in him to utter such a statement. His attempts to save Cordelia are unclear in reflection of his vile self. It is by deceitfulness of Edmund that sets Gloucester against his son Edgar after reading a letter written by the former that compromises the character of the elder brother. The hysical blindness i nflicted upon Gloucester by Cornwall is metaphorically related to the blinding of the former by Edmund against his elder brother. Discussing the similarities between the two villains Edmund and Lago, they both were skilled soldiers during their time. When scene changes from the urban Venice to the island of Cyprus, the people are protected by the military in which Iago is a soldier under Othello (Canning). Edmund with the English army defeats Cordelia commander of the French army and captures him and his wife, Lear. He deeply filled with remorse after the killing of YourLastName 5 Cordelia and Lear by his soldiers as he declares that he tried every attempt to save them but couldnt. Works Cited Amanda Mabillard, 05/09/2010 acessed from http://www. shakespeareonline. com/ plays/othello/iagochar. html. Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. October 30, 2005 [EBo 0k #16966]. Accessed from http://www. pgdp. net. Pdf Canning, Albert Stratford George. Shakespeare Studied in Six Plays . London: T. F. Unwin, 1907. Shakespeare Online. 20 Aug. 2009. Accessed on 2nd may 2013

Writing an Autobiographical Incident Essay About Allstar Cheerleading

Writing an Autobiographical Incident Essay About Allstar CheerleadingThere are many resources to help with the practice of writing an autobiography, especially if you're writing a sample autobiographical incident essay about allstar cheerleading. Of course, as anyone who has ever written an autobiography can tell you, writing an autobiography is an incredibly difficult task to accomplish and not all writers are equipped to do it well. That's why you need an experienced editor, somebody who has been through this before and who knows how to go about the writing process, and a lot of practice.An experienced editor will have a good idea of how to go about the editing process for you, especially if your sample autobiographical incident essay is titled something like 'All Star Cheerleading.' An editor should be able to provide you with all the suggestions and guidance you need to create a good story. Unfortunately, you don't need to get any kind of professional editor to edit your story. I f you have a good idea about what you want to write, then you will be able to get the help you need from a friend or family member.The best way to use the online resources is to use them to write and send the draft to a friend or family member. They will read it over, either in person or on the internet, and then provide feedback. They will also allow you to edit your story, just like an editor would. When you send the draft off, don't forget to keep notes about things that were clear and important to you.You can also read over the story as you write it and use the same techniques to help you do it too. For example, you could write your own author bio at the end of the story. You could also create a section on your website about yourself. This will help you build up your public image and allow you to introduce yourself in the story as well.If you're using an online resource to write the sample autobiographical incident essay about allstar cheerleading, you need to make sure that you get as much input as possible. Write down notes about things that are important to you. You can include pictures, links to your blog, the names of people you admire, and anything else that will be helpful to you. As long as you take some time to put the pieces together in a coherent way, the whole process should go fairly smoothly.Once you have a really good idea of what you want to write, then you need to write out the story on a notepad and then create a draft. Have someone edit your story so that you have a really good first draft. It's also a good idea to edit out parts of the story that you don't like. Sometimes, though, a story needs to be told in its entirety so that there is no need to revise the whole thing.Hopefully, if you take the time to get some practice writing about yourself, then you'll be able to write a sample autobiographical incident essay about allstar cheerleading. Just remember to keep a diary about your life and your experiences, so that you can see where y ou're coming from and where you're going.

Debussey essays

Debussey essays Debussys Arabaesque, has become one of my favorite pieces of classical Music for the simple fact that it is easy for me to identify with. This particular piece of music reminds me a lot of a roller coaster because there are a lot of places where Debussy will build up to a climax then drop dramatically. He is able to do this by manipulating the tempo in which he plays the notes, and the order in which he plays the notes. For example, when he builds up to the climax he plays the notes up tempo and in scale rhythm. When Debussy does this it gives the piece a light hearted feel. Then he uses a chord of notes to drop from the climax. In doing this he is able to give the music a melancholy under tone. Debussy will then play a line of music but then he will return to the climax and fall routine. Therefore making the piece repetitive. I find that the pieces repitition is what gives the piece its beauty. I find that the repitition helps relax the listener and helps them to be able t o flow with the music. I enjoy this piece so much because to me it isnt just another piece of music for listening purposes but in listening it becomes a tool for my mind to use. I say this because this particular piece enables me to free my mind and to think more clearly about an array of thing. Those things may include: my school work, my plans for the next day, or I may things of a greater importance such as my spirituality or just memories. So I also use it as a tool for my concentration I love to listen to this piece while writing a paper for any of my classes because to me it seems as the notes are being played words are coming to me in my head. Maybe not as fast as the notes but to me the notes symbolize the words of my sentences. I also love to listen to this piece when I am studying my bible at night because it seems I am abl ...

Consecuencias de tener bebé en EE.UU. como turista

Consecuencias de tener bebà © en EE.UU. como turista Tener un hijo en Estados Unidos mientras se est en el paà ­s en condicià ³n de turista puede tener consecuencias migratorias positivas y tambià ©n muy negativas. Esto aplica a aquellas personas extranjeras que ingresan con visa de turista, con visa lser tambià ©n conocida como tarjeta de cruce y, por à ºltimo, a los que ingresan sin visa bajo el Programa de Exencià ³n de Visados. En este artà ­culo se explica el efecto positivo y por el que realmente los padres pueden sentirse inclinados a que su bebà © nazca en Estados Unidos. Pero tambià ©n se hace referencia pormenorizada a las posibles consecuencias negativas, ya que cada vez son ms frecuentes y, por regla general, puede decirse que los padres nunca piensan en ellas, hasta que se encuentran con el problema. Por à ºltimo, se explica cà ³mo evitar las consecuencias negativas para lo cual se menciona cul es el costo medio de dar a luz en Estados Unidos, el paà ­s de todo el mundo donde es ms caro nacer. Consecuencias positivas cuando turista da a luz en EE.UU. Todos los bebà ©s nacidos en el paà ­s son ciudadanos americanos desde el momento de su nacimiento con la excepcià ³n de los hijos de diplomticos que se encuentran en Estados Unidos en dicha funcià ³n. En este caso, el bebà © adquiere la nacionalidad de sus padres. El resto de bebà ©s, es decir, los que no son hijos de diplomticos destinados en Estados Unidos, adquieren la ciudadanà ­a en virtud de lo que se conoce como ius soli. Es indiferente el estatus migratorio de los padres, tampoco importa  si residen habitualmente en Estados Unidos o solamete estn de paso o disfrutando una temporada. Con el acta de nacimiento del recià ©n nacido se puede obtener un pasaporte para el menor, teniendo en cuenta que para solicitarlo han de estar presentes el bebà © y los dos padres y, si no fuera posible la presencia de ambos, hay que cumplir con otros requisitos legales. El nià ±o o la nià ±a ser ciudadanos americanos de por vida, a menos que renuncien expresamente a ser estadounidenses o de adultos realicen alguna accià ³n que tenga como castigo la pà ©rdida de la nacionalidad. Seguirn siendo estadounidenses aunque al poco de nacer regresen al paà ­s de sus paps y vivan all el resto de sus vidas y adquieran tambià ©n la ciudadanà ­a de los padres. En cuanto a posibles derechos migratorios de los paps de un nià ±o ciudadano americano hay que decir que existen muchas ideas equivocadas, ya que un ciudadano estadounidense menor de 21 aà ±os jams puede reclamar papeles para sus padres. Y aà ºn en ese caso existen là ­mites segà ºn el estatus migratorio de los padres en Estados Unidos. En otras palabras, dar a luz en Estados Unidos no da derecho a los padres a quedarse en el paà ­s ni a regular la situacià ³n. Por à ºltimo, hay que tener en cuenta otra cuestià ³n importante, que es la de la doble nacionalidad. Estados Unidos no pone problemas a la hora de que un bebà © nacido en el paà ­s adquiera tambià ©n otra nacionalidad por razà ³n de sus padres. Sin embargo, no todos los paà ­ses admiten la doble nacionalidad, por lo tanto ese es un tema que cada padre y madre debe verificar con su embajada o consulado. Consecuencias negativas de tener un hijo en EE.UU. como turista Para evitar tener problemas hay que tener un seguro mà ©dico o pagar del propio bolsillo todos los gastos mà ©dicos derivados del nacimiento. En este punto destacar que es prcticamente imposible obtener un seguro mà ©dico en Estados Unidos o en otro paà ­s que cubra a los turistas los gastos de dar a luz. Esto significa en la prctica que el padre y/o la madre deben hacerse cargo de los gastos del nacimiento del bebà © y de posibles cuidados mà ©dicos que necesite la madre. El problema es que en Estados Unidos dar a luz es muy caro, si bien hay importantes diferencias entre estados. Asà ­, segà ºn datos de International Federation of Health Plans, el costo medio de dar a luz de forma natural y sin complicaciones es de $10.808. En el caso de ser necesaria una cesrea, el costo medio es de $51.125, segà ºn datos de Childbirth Connection. Los gastos se incrementan en el caso de complicaciones, partos prematuros y necesidad de incubadora o partos mà ºltiples. En muchas ocasiones los paps extranjeros desconocen que estos son los costos y cuando llega el momento del parto acuden al hospital sin seguro mà ©dico y sin dinero suficiente para cubrir los costos. En estos casos, se le asigna un trabajador social y el recibo ocasionado por el nacimiento lo cubre Medicaid  de Emergencia, un seguro gubernamental que cubre los gastos mà ©dicos de los estadounidenses ms pobres y de ciertos extranjeros como residentes permanentes legales en casos muy concretos, refugiados y asilados. Y aquà ­ es donde se origina el problema, al ocasionar un gasto a las arcas pà ºblicas americanas y convertirse asà ­ en lo que se conoce como una carga pà ºblica. Posibles consecuencias de no pagar gastos de nacimiento Si no se paga por el nacimiento de un bebà © y Medicaid se hace cargo del gasto pueden surgir graves problemas migratorios. En primer lugar, la visa de ambos padres puede ser revocada o cancelada. Para entender esto hay que recordar que una de las condiciones para que se conceda la visa en primer lugar es probar que no se va a ser una carga pà ºblica para el gobierno americano. Y al dejar sin pagar una factura mà ©dica a la que debe hacer frente Medicaid se ha hecho precisamente eso. Por lo tanto, es muy posible quedarse sin visa. Adems, puede que el titular de la visa no se entere de que à ©sta ha sido cancelada hasta que intenta entrar de nuevo a Estados Unidos y se encuentra con problemas en la aduana y que no se le permite la entrada. Asimismo, puede suceder que cuando se va al consulado a renovar la visa, se niegue la solicitud. Esto aplica tambià ©n a los padres con visa lser y a los que ingresaron sin visa por el Programa de Exencià ³n de Visados. En este caso, podrà ­an perder este privilegio. El problema no suele surgir de inmediato, sino en el momento de renovar la visa o la ESTA o cuando se solicita la renovacià ³n del pasaporte estadounidense del hijo. Por el tipo de preguntas que se realizan en los formularios queda claro que el bebà © nacià ³ cuando la mam estaba como turista en Estados Unidos y se pueden hacer preguntas para determinar si los padres pagaron por el parto y pueden demostrarlo o, por el contrario, si fueron una carga pà ºblica.  ¿Es posible arreglar el problema pagando ms tarde a Medicaid? No, no es posible. Esto lo intentan muchos padres cuando se encuentra con el problema entre las manos. Pero Medicaid simplemente no tiene establecido un trmite para recuperar el dinero en estos casos, sà ³lo cuando ha habido fraude. A consecuencia de ello, esa deuda queda siempre ahà ­ pendiente y puede ser el origen de muchos disgustos relacionados con rechazos de visas y otras peticiones migratorias.  ¿Quà © hacer cuando se viaja a EE.UU. para evitar estos problemas? La solucià ³n es viajar siempre con un buen seguro mà ©dico y/o con dinero suficiente para hacer frente a gastos sanitarios. Es muy importante tener en cuenta que los gastos mà ©dicos en Estados Unidos son altà ­simos y que un parto sin complicacià ³n alguna puede costar varios miles de dà ³lares. Hay que destacar que muchos seguros mà ©dicos excluyen cubrir por un parto en el extranjero y que ningà ºn seguro mà ©dico de Estados Unidos va a cubrir por un parto de una persona de otro paà ­s que quiere venir a dar a luz aquà ­. Si pagà ³ por el parto es muy recomendable que lleve consigo las facturas siempre que viaje a Estados Unidos. Si surge un problema en la aduana por este motivo, conveniente tener a mano justificacià ³n del pago. Tambià ©n es altamente recomendable  no quedarse ms tiempo del permitido, ni siquiera alegando que se recià ©n se tuvo un bebà © y que estaba muy chiquito para viajar o que estaba enfermo o la madre no estaba recuperada del parto. Esa no es razà ³n vlida para permanecer en Estados Unidos ms all del tiempo autorizado.   Precisamente para evitar posibles problemas en los que se puede incurrir por ignorancia, es recomendable  tomar este  quiz, trivial o test sobre visas  de gran ayuda para conocer lo fundamental sobre cà ³mo obtener la visa y cà ³mo conservarla. Curiosidad sobre bebà ©s hispanos en Estados Unidos El alto à ­ndice de nacimientos latinos en Estados Unidos ha colocado a los hispanos como la minorà ­a ms numerosa, habiendo sobrepasado a los afroamericanos. Un reflejo de ello es que tres apellidos hispanos se encuentran entre los 10 ms comunes. Este artà ­culo es meramente informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal para ningà ºn caso en particular.

I have an article need to be reviewed Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

I have an need to be reviewed - Article Example Chris Howell has a Doctor of Philosophy from Yale University, while Rebecca Kolins Gavin has a doctorate in Political Science from Northwestern University. Their work has been cited 14 times since it was published in 2011. Comparative political economy claims that institutions are important because they mediate economic pressures, distribute powers among actors, and offers solutions to problems that are faced by market economies (Hall & Taylor 1996). The authors have focused on the political economic approach, developed by Frege and Kelly (2013), in which the focus is on the historical and institutional roots of employment regimes and institutions. They have described in detail the role of the state in the development of industrial relations in all three countries, but have given limited description about the role of the market factors in these events. The Varieties of Capitalism (VOC) model (Hall & Soskice 2001) has been used to try to understand and compare the patterns of industrial relations and institutional changes in the three countries. It is mentioned in the article that institutions are not able to perform in isolation, and that there will be interactions and complementarities between them as suggested by the VOC model. The Dunlop system theory has assumed that common technologies and cross-national markets would create convergence towards a common model of employment regulation. A feature of the period since the mid-1980s can support this claim where it can be observed that even though there have been differences in the policies and details accompanying reform, the direction of institutional change has been broadly similar across governments of different political natures. However, it also assumes that the market factors and employers are the main factors, while politics and the government are just secondary forces.

Hospitality Contract and Event Management Essay

Hospitality Contract and Event Management - Essay Example ........................... 12 References .................................................................................................. 13 The Scenario Events have become important in our lives. Events refer to a happening called for a specific objective which is planned and managed like a project. An event is ‘an organized occasion such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala dinner, and so forth’ (CIC, 2003 as cited in Bowdin et al., 2006, p. 14). Business events are happenings designed for conferences, exhibitions, incentive travel, and corporate events. They are categorized and referred with an acronym MICE, representing meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions/events. Events lead to value creation process when organisations create interactions among employees and events provide a unique experience. External factors affecting planning and management in the event and contract sectors 1.1 Main characteristics of the contract and event ca tering sectors The meetings industry is a large contributor to the gross domestic product of the United States and the United Kingdom (Craven & Golabowski 2001, p. 3). Planning, organization and management of the event should be considered as a project and that the events planner and the team in charge of the implementation should adopt a project management approach to planning and delivering their event (Conway 2004). This must be accompanied with a business plan along with a written plan and report. Contract and event catering have become parts of a growing industry. It is young and maturing at a rapid rate. Conferences are at the forefront of modern communications, whether this is for internal communications or as a vehicle for communication with key audiences. Conference is a generic term to... Events have become important in our lives. Events refer to a happening called for a specific objective which is planned and managed like a project. An event is ‘an organized occasion such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala dinner, and so forth’ (CIC, 2003 as cited in Bowdin et al., 2006, p. 14). Business events are happenings designed for conferences, exhibitions, incentive travel, and corporate events. They are categorized and referred with an acronym MICE, representing meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions/events. Events lead to value creation process when organisations create interactions among employees and events provide a unique experience. External factors affecting planning and management in the event and contract sectors 1.1Main characteristics of the contract and event catering sectors The meetings industry is a large contributor to the gross domestic product of the United States and the United Kingdom (Craven & Golabowski 2001, p. 3). Planning, organization and management of the event should be considered as a project and that the events planner and the team in charge of the implementation should adopt a project management approach to planning and delivering their event (Conway 2004). This must be accompanied with a business plan along with a written plan and report. Contract and event catering have become parts of a growing industry. It is young and maturing at a rapid rate. Conferences are at the forefront of modern communications, whether this is for internal communications or as a vehicle for communication with key audiences. Conference is a generic term to describe a diverse mix of communications events. (Rogers 2003, p. 45)

Herbal Dietary Supplements :: Diet Supplement Weight Loss Gain Research Paper

Herbal Dietary Supplements Fit America Fit America touts itself as the very best and most practical 100% Natural system of weight loss that helps an individual lose weight without dieting. Fit America is a natural weight control that is composed of 13 herbs and minerals that supposedly "help suppress appetite, regulate the bowels and kidneys, and stimulates the metabolism so the body uses the foods consumed more efficiently." The Fit America program requires a high protein, low carbohydrate diet. Fit America promises that an individual can expect to lose up to 10 to 18 pounds per month with a proper balance of food and water consumption. These herbal supplements include astragalus, bitter orange, cascara sagrada, fo-ti, gingko, english hawthorn, henna, licorice root, ma huang, and valerian root. It is recommended that individuals who utilize the Fit America program begin by taking one gray colored herbal capsule twice a day and one peach colored herbal capsule once a day. The Fit America program then encourage s the individual to gradually increase their dosage of grey colored capsules but to take no more than eight in one day1. For a 7 - 10 day starter kit of Fit America, the price is $29.95. For a 45 day supply, the cost is $139.00. I will attempt to review the safety of these herbs and their effects on the human body. Herbal Regulations When a pharmaceutical company desires to market a prescription drug, they must meet certain procedures and standards established by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These procedures can last many years and incur hundreds of millions of dollars of cost for the pharmaceutical company. Before a drug can be marketed, it must first be patented and then pass three phases of clinical investigation. In Phase I, the drug is tested by giving a small amount of it to a limited number of people. At this stage, the researchers are looking for the pharmacological effects on the body such as side effects. In Phase II, individuals who have the condition that the drug is supposed to treat are tested. Approximately 100 people are tested in this phase. If Phase II shows signs of promise, then clinical investigations move into Phase III.